MODULE
1 EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES OF TEACHING ENGLISH
1.1
Aims
& Objectives of teaching English at different school levels:
An understanding of the concepts of
aims and objectives would help individuals appreciate the modes adopted for
teaching English at schools.
Aims:
Aims are:
· An
intention or aspiration; what you hope to achieve.
· Aims
are statements of intent, written in broad terms.
· Aims
set out what you hope to achieve at the end of a project, a task, a learning
event.
The convention is that an aim is usually
written using an infinitive verb – that is, it’s a ‘to + action’. So aims often
start something like… My aim in this project is … to map, to develop, to
design, to track, to generate, to theorise, to build to investigate, to
understand, to explore, to synthesise, to catalogue, to challenge, to
critically interrogate ….
Objectives:
Objectives are “the end towards which a
school sponsored activity is directed”. Effective tangible changes in students’
behaviour at the end of schooling is known as objective. Dr. S. R. Bloom has
defined educational objective as, “the desired goal or outcome at which
instruction is aimed”.
A goal or a step on the way to
meeting the aim; how you will achieve it.
· Objectives
use specific statements which define measurable outcomes. For example: what
steps will you take to achieve the desired outcome?
· Objectives
should be S.M.A.R.T.:
Specific –
precise about what one is to do
Measureable
–must help us know when we have reached the goal
Achievable
– Don’t attempt too much. A less ambitious but completed objective is better
than an over-ambitious one that you cannot possible achieve.
Realistic
– That which can be reached within the resources available. For example: time,
money, skills, etc.
Time bound – Each stage
must be completed in a time-bound manner and not give scope for unexpected
delays.
The
characteristics of good objectives are:
1) It should be precise and specific.
2) It should be based on psychological
principles.
3) It should be for the improvement
of the students.
4) It should be in terms of change expected
in the student and not as duties of the teacher.
5) It should be for changing or modifying
student’s behaviour.
Objectives are often expressed
through active sentences. So, objectives often start something like In order to
achieve this aim, I will… collect, construct, produce, test, trial, measure,
document, pilot, deconstruct, analyse… Objectives are often presented as a (1)
(2) (3) formatted list – this makes visible the sequence of big steps in the project.
The list of objectives spells out what you actually and really will do to get
to the point of it all.
Aims describe what you want to
achieve. Objectives describe how you are going to achieve those aims. Aims and
objectives are a foundation on which the entire project is constructed, so they
need to be sturdy and durable.
Example
Aim:
To investigate the relationship between tectonic-plate movement and the
gravitational effect of the alignment of the major planets.
Objectives:
1)
Data
sets will be extracted from the known historical record of tectonic-plate
movement
2)
Data
sets will be extracted from astronomical tables detailing the various
alignments of the major planets covering the same period as data from the
geological record.
3)
The
data from both sets will be synthesised to establish if correlation points
exist between major geological events and planetary alignments.
The National Curriculum Framework
2005 defines the following objectives on teaching of English at primary stage:
Level–
1 (Classes I – II)
• to build familiarity with the
language primarily through spoken input in meaningful situations (teacher talk,
listening to recorded material, etc.).
• to provide and monitor exposure
to and comprehension of spoken, as well as written English
• to provide a variety of inputs
(through mother tongue, signs, visuals, pictures, sketches, gestures, single
word questions/answers).
• to help learners build a working
proficiency in the language, especially with regard to listening with
understanding and basic oral production (words/phrases, fragments of utterances,
formulaic expressions as communicative devices).
• to recite and sing poems, songs
and rhymes and enact small plays/skits
• to use drawing and painting as
precursors to writing and relate these activities to oral communication.
• to become visually familiar with
text [word(s)], what it means, and to notice its components - letter (s) and
the sound-values they stand for.
• to associate meaning with
written/printed language.
At
the end of this stage learners should be able to:
- talk about themselves, members of
the family and the people in their surroundings.
- follow simple instructions,
requests and questions, and use formulaic expressions appropriately
- enjoy doing tasks (including
singing a rhyme or identifying a person, object or thing) in English
- recognise whole words or chunks
of language
- recognise small and capital forms
of English alphabet both in context and in isolation
- read simple words/short sentences
with the help of pictures and understand them
- write simple words/phrases/short
sentences
Level
– II (Classes III, IV and V)
• To provide print-rich environment
to relate oracy with literacy.
• To build on learners’ readiness
for reading and writing.
• To promote learners’ conceptualisation
of printed texts in terms of headings, paragraphs and horizontal lines.
• To enrich learners’ vocabulary
mainly through telling, retelling and reading aloud of stories/ folktales in
English.
• To use appropriate spoken and
written language in meaningful contexts/situations.
• To give them an opportunity to
listen to sounds/sound techniques and appreciate the rhythm and music of
rhymes/sounds.
• To enable them to relate words
(mainly in poems) with appropriate actions and thereby provide understanding of
the language.
• To familiarize learners with the
basic process of writing.
At
the end of this stage learners will be able to:
- narrate his/her experiences and
incidents
- exchange his/her ideas with the
peers
- carry out a brief conversation
involving seeking/giving information
- enjoy reading a story, poem, a
short write-up, a notice, poster etc.
- take dictation of simple
sentences and to practice copy writing from the blackboard and textbook and to
use common punctuation marks
- write a short description of a
person, thing or place – prepare a notice, or write a message for someone
- write a short composition based
on pictures
- take part in group activity, role
play and dramatization
A]
Aims and objectives of teaching English at secondary level
The following are the main
objectives of teaching English at secondary level:
Ø To
enable the learners to listen to English with proper understanding
Ø To
enable the learners to speak English correctly. It means that producing sounds
with the proper stress and intonation.
Ø To
enable the students to read English and comprehend and interpret the text.
Ø To
enable the students to write English correctly and meaningfully, i.e. for
example writing letters, applications, description and accounts of day to day
events
Ø To
enable the learners to acquire knowledge of the elements of English.
Ø To
enable the learners to develop interest in English
Ø To
increase student’s ability to use planning, drafting and editing to improve
their work.
Ø To
enable students to express themselves creatively and imaginatively.
Ø To
enable students to speak clearly and audibly in ways which take into account
their listeners.
Ø To
enable students to become enthusiastic and reflective readers through contact
with challenging and text level knowledge.
B]
Aims and objectives of teaching English at Higher secondary level
To motivate students for more
studying English language.
To encourage for composing poems
and writing essay.
To develop the ability for grasping
the theme of poem or English passage.
To encourage the students for
writing the meaning or theme of poem or passage in their own words.
To develop the ability of
appreciation of ideas and criticizing the thinking.
To develop the creativity of the
students related to verbal ability and reasoning or fluency of language.
To develop the ability of
understanding of other school subjects.
To develop the mastery of language
for expressing his ideas, feelings and experiences.
To develop the ability of
evaluation and analysis of language components.
To develop the values, moral and
character of the students.
1.2
Curricular
objectives, instructional objectives, specifications & competencies
Curricular
Objectives are the educational outcomes or
terminal outcomes. These are what we would like to see happen in students as
they complete the course. The statements embrace teacher, learner actions and
kinds of learning outcomes anticipated.
Instructional
objectives are intended behavior changes that are
expected to take place in a learner undergoing a learning experience. It is a
statement that will describe what the learner will be able to do after
completing the instruction.
Before
framing the objectives analyse:
A)
the
student’s
1) Knowledge
level
2) Understanding
of the subject
3) Level
of competency
B) The
content
1)
Level of content
C) Gap analysis
Components of
objectives:
1. a
description - able to do or know by the end of this course,
2. the
conditions – under which the desired behaviour will be performed
3. evaluating
performance
Learning
objectives have two parts:
1.
an action verb;
2.
a content area,
Statements must be short and focused on a
single outcome
Specifications:
Educational
systems may be rationally evaluated only if the system objectives are properly
specified. Specifications are a set of specified objectives. They are a more
precise re-statement of the course objectives and are measurable. The
performance of individual students can be measured independently of the
performance of other students.
Competency:
A cluster of related abilities, commitments, knowledge, and skills that enable
a person (or an organization) to act effectively in a job or situation.
Competence indicates sufficiency of knowledge and skills that enable someone to
act in a wide variety of situations.
To
understand competencies, it is important to define the various components of
competencies namely; knowledge, skill, ability, and individual attributes.
Knowledge
is the cognizance of facts, truths and principles gained from formal training
and/or experience. Application and sharing of one's knowledge base is critical
to individual and organizational success.
A
skill is a developed proficiency or dexterity in mental operations or physical
processes that is often acquired through specialized training; the execution of
these skills results in successful performance.
Ability
is the power or aptitude to perform physical or mental activities that are
often affiliated with a particular profession or trade such as computer
programming, plumbing, calculus, and so forth. Although organizations may be
adept at measuring results, skills and knowledge regarding one's performance,
they are often remiss in recognizing employees' abilities or aptitudes,
especially those outside of the traditional job design.
Individual
attributes are properties, qualities or characteristics of individuals that
reflect one's unique personal makeup. Individual attributes are viewed as
genetically developed or acquired from one's accumulated life experiences.
Although personal characteristics are the most subjective of the components, a
growing, significant body of research links specific personality traits to
successful individual and organizational performance.
Individually
recognizing and rewarding any of these sources of expertise provides a strong
basis for individual performance engagement. However, it is their combination
that results in the unleashing of resources that are all too frequently
untapped.
When
utilizing competencies, it is important to keep the following in mind:
Competencies
do not establish baseline performance levels; rather they are used to raise the
bar on employee performance. They provide employees with road maps to increase
their capabilities incrementally.
Competencies
focus on an organization's culture and values.
Competencies
reflect the organization's strategy; that is, they are aligned to short- and
long-term missions and goals.
Competencies
focus on how results are achieved rather than merely the end result. In this
manner they bridge the gap between performance management and employee
development and are an integral component of personal development plans.
Competencies
close skill gaps within the organization.
Competency
data can be used for employee development, compensation, promotion, training
and new hire selection decisions.
List of Core
Competencies
1. Accountability
Accepts
responsibility for own actions and decisions and demonstrates commitment to
accomplish work in an ethical, efficient and cost-effective manner.
2. Adaptability
Adjusts
planned work by gathering relevant information and applying critical thinking
to address multiple demands and competing priorities in a changing environment.
3. Communication
Effectively
conveys information and expresses thoughts and facts. Demonstrates effective
use of listening skills and displays openness to other people's ideas and
thoughts.
4. Customer/Quality
Focus
Anticipates,
monitors and meets the needs of customers and responds to them in an
appropriate manner. Demonstrates a personal commitment to identify customers'
apparent and underlying needs and continually seeks to provide the highest
quality service and product to all customers.
5. Inclusiveness
Fosters
respect for all individuals and points of view. Interacts appropriately with
all members of the campus community, campus visitors and business and community
partners without regard to individual characteristics. Demonstrates a personal
commitment to create a hospitable and welcoming environment.
6. Leadership
Communicates
the University's vision in ways that gain the support of others. Mentors,
motivates and guides others toward goals.
7. Occupational
Knowledge/Technology Orientation
Demonstrates
the appropriate level of proficiency in the principles and practices of one's
field or profession. Demonstrates a commitment to continuous improvement, to
include understanding and application of technology (hardware, software,
equipment and processes).
8. Team
Focus
Works
cooperatively and effectively with others to achieve common goals. Participates
in building a group identity characterized by pride, trust and commitment.
The
difference between a competency and a learning objective
Competencies
define the applied skills and knowledge that enable people to successfully
perform their work while learning objectives are specific to a course of instruction.
Competencies are relevant to an individual’s job responsibilities, roles and capabilities.
They are a way to verify that a learner has in fact learned what was intended
in the learning objectives.
Learning objectives describe what the learner should
be able to achieve at the end of a learning period. Learning objectives should
be specific, measurable statements and written in behavioral terms. In short,
objectives say what we want the learners to know and competencies say how we
can be certain they know it.
Here
is an example of competencies and learning objectives relating to the competency:
Competency:
Utilizes appropriate methods for interacting sensitively, effectively, and professionally
with persons from diverse cultural, socioeconomic, educational, racial, ethnic
and professional backgrounds, and persons of all ages and lifestyle preferences
(competency from: Council on Linkages Between Academia and Public Health
Practice)
Learning objectives
from a course that relate to the above competency:
Describe the demographic trends and epidemiological trends related to diverse populations
in the United States and abroad
Compare and contrast diversity and cultural competency in the public health context
Identify a framework to design culturally competent public health care services
for diverse populations
How to write a
competency:
1.
Begin with a present tense action verb.
(Example: Convert meters to points and
inches.)
2.
Each action verb requires an object.
(Example:
Identify bacteria, fungi, and parasites.)
(Verb
followed by object)
3.
Each competency is measurable and/or observable.
(Example:
Describe general methods of child study by describing such procedures as
longitudinal study, case study and correlational study.)
4.
Each competency is based on performance.
(Example:
Evaluate literacy genre from a historical perspective by comparing and
contrasting the literary works in the 19th Century.)
5.
Do not use evaluative or relative adjectives.
(Do
not use words like good, effective, appropriate.)
6.
Do not use evaluative or relative adverbs.
(Do
not use words like quickly, slowly, immediately.)
7.
Do not use qualifying phrases.
(Do
not use a phrase such as “Write with greater confidence.”)
8.
Say what you mean, using only necessary words.
Content
1.
Use all domains as appropriate: cognitive, psychomotor and affective.
2.
Build the level of learning from the lowest level to the highest level in each domain,
e.g., from knowledge to evaluation in the cognitive domain; from imitation to naturalization
in the psychomotor domain; and from receiving to characterizing in the
affective domain.
3.
Organize similar knowledge, skill and abilities together into a competency, developing
a smaller number of competencies rather than an extensive number of knowledge,
skills and ability outcomes.
4.
Introduce the knowledge, skills and abilities required for transfer to upper division
programs, or performance in career.
5.
Relate competencies to prerequisites and general education requirements.
KNOWLEDGE
Recognition
and recall of facts and specifics
EXAMPLES:
Define
Describes
List
State
COMPREHENSION
Interprets,
translates, summarizes, or paraphrases given information
EXAMPLES:
Convert
Infer
Rewrite
APPLICATION
Processes
information in a situation different from original learning context
EXAMPLES:
Demonstrate
Relate
Produce
ANALYSIS
Separates
whole into parts; clarifies relationships among elements
EXAMPLES:
Diagram
Outline
Illustrate
SYNTHESIS
Combines
elements to form new entity from original one
EXAMPLES
Compile
Compose
Design
EVALUATION
Makes
decisions, judges, or selects based on criteria and rationale
EXAMPLES:
Compare
Contrast
Justify
Summarize
COGNITIVE
DOMAIN
Evaluate
desired learning level
LEVELS
OF LEARNING
IMITATION
Observes
skill and attempts to repeat it
MANIPULATION
Performs
skill by instruction rather than observation
PRECISION
Reproduces
a skill with accuracy, proportion, and exactness; usually performed independent
of original sources
ARTICULATION
Combines
more than one skill in sequence with harmony and consistency
NATURALIZATION
Completes
one or more skills with ease; requires limited physical or mental exertion
RECEIVING
Listening
passively. Attending to
EXAMPLES:
Ask
Name
RESPONDING
Complies
to given expectation; shows interest
EXAMPLES:
Answer
Recite
VALUING
Displays
behavior consistent with single belief or attitude; unforced compliance
EXAMPLES:
Complete
Explain
Justify
ORGANIZING
Committed
to a set of values as displayed by behavior
EXAMPLES:
Integrate
Adhere
CHARACTERIZING
Total
behavior is consistent with values internalized
EXAMPLES:
Qualify
Modify
Perform
Revision
based on Bloom, Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. Handbook I; Dave,
Developing and Writing
Behavioral
Objectives; and Krathwohl, Bloom, and Masia, Taxonomy of Educational
Objectives. Handbook II.
Found
September 22, 2010 at
http://www.instruction.greenriver.edu/avery/faculty/pres/tesol04/comptetencies3.html
1.2
Learning taxonomy- B.S. Bloom, Dave
& Simpson-Implications in classroom
Taxonomy of Educational
objectives (an ordered classification system with hierarchical schemes for
classifying learning objectives into various levels of
complexity).Instructional objectives have been categorised into three:
1. Cognitive domain (Bloom et al.,
1956):Knowledge, Comprehension, Application, Analysis, Synthesis, Evaluation
2. Affective domain-describes our feeling,
likes, and dislikes, our experiences, as well as the resulting behaviours
(reactions).It is demonstrated by behaviours indicating:
• attitudes of awareness;
• Interest;
• Attention;
• Concern;
• Responsibility;
• Ability to listen and respond in
interactions with others; and
• Ability to demonstrate those attitudinal
characteristics of value which are appropriate to the test situation and the
field of study.
David Krathwohl (1972)
proposed a five level taxonomy of objectives:
1. Receiving: Willingness to receive or to
attend to a particular phenomena or stimuli. It has been divided into three
sub-categories:
• Awareness – being conscious of something
• Willingness to receive – being willing to
tolerate a given stimulus
• Controlled or selected attention
2. Responding: Refers to active participation on
the part of the student.
• The student is sufficiently motivated to be
actively attentive.
• The student becomes committed to the lesson
or subject.
• Learning outcomes involve obedience or
compliance or willingness.
3. Valuing:
• Student sees worth or value in the
activity.
• The student is motivated not by the
teacher to comply but by his underlying value guiding the behaviour.
• Learning outcomes are concerned with
behaviour that is consistent to make the value clearly identifiable.
4. Organising: Entails bringing together complex
values or possible disparate values or resolving conflicts and beginning to build
an internally consistent value system.
• The emphasis is on comparing, relating and
synthesizing values.Example is recognising the need for balance between freedom
and responsible
5. Characterizing by value: Implies a pervasive,
consistent and predictable behaviour.
• Instructional objectives are concerned with
the student’s general patterns of adjustment (personal, social,
emotional).Example is how he/she cooperates in groups.
3. Psychomotor domain:
• Its focus is on motor skills and perceptual
processes.
• Includes physical movements, coordination,
and use of motor skills.
• According to Seel and Glasgow (1990),
Harrow’s taxonomy of the psychomotor domain is organised according to degree of
coordination including involuntary responses as well as learned capabilities.
• Simple reflexes are at the lowest level of
the taxonomy while complex neuromuscular coordination makes up the highest
levels.
• Six main categories of Harrow’s taxonomy
are:
a. Reflex movements: actions elicited without
learning in response to some stimuli.
b. Basic fundamental movement: inherent movement
patterns that are formed from a combination of reflex movements and are the
basis of complex skilled movements.
c. Perceptual abilities: interpretation of
stimuli from various modalities providing information for an individual to make
adjustment to his environment
d. Physical activities: this requires endurance,
strength and vigour.
e. Skilled movements: refers to performing
complex movement or task with a degree of efficiency based on inherent movement
patterns.
f. Non-discursive communication: refers to
communication through bodily movement ranging from facial expression through
sophisticated choreographies.
(http://www.slideshare.net/adelaideofei/curriculum-objectives)
Educational
implications of Bloom’s taxonomy include the following:
·
Bloom’s taxonomy
provides a universally effective strategy for creating all type of content to
impart learning.
·
The taxonomy helps
teachers make decisions about the classification of content.
·
Bloom’s taxonomy also
helps teachers map content to tasks that students need to perform.
·
Bloom’s taxonomy guides
teachers to develop higher levels of thinking process for critical thinking or
creative thinking.
·
Using the taxonomy a
teacher develops questions or projects that require the development of thinking
and reflection from the knowledge level to the evaluation level.
·
A teacher or a syllabus
designer designs a curriculum as well as classroom assignment using Bloom’s
taxonomy to advance the learning process from recalling learning materials to
higher level of thinking.
A teacher creates class
activities based on Bloom’s Taxonomy.
A statement of a
learning objective contains a verb (an action) and an object (usually a noun).
The verb generally
refers to [actions associated with] the intended cognitive process.
The object generally
describes the knowledge students are expected to acquire or construct.
(Anderson and
Krathwohl, 2001, pp. 4–5)
The cognitive process
dimension represents a continuum of increasing cognitive complexity—from
remember to create. Anderson and Krathwohl identify 19 specific cognitive
processes that further clarify the bounds of the six categories (Table 1).
Table 1. The cognitive
processes dimension — categories, cognitive processes (and alternative names)
(Table 1 adapted from
Anderson and Krathwohl, 2001, pp. 67–68.)
Potential Activities
and Products
Remembering: Potential Activities
and Products
• Make a list of the
main events of the story.
• Make a time line of
events.
• Make a facts chart.
• Write a list of any
pieces of information you can remember.
• What animals were in
the story?
• Make a chart showing…
• Make an acrostic.
• Recite a poem.
Understanding:
Potential Activities and Products
• Cut out, or draw
pictures to show a particular event.
• Illustrate what you
think the main idea may have been.
• Make a cartoon strip
showing the sequence of events.
• Write and perform a
play based on the story.
• Retell the story in
your own words.
• Write a summary
report of the event
• Prepare a flow chart
to illustrate the sequence of events.
• Make a coloring book.
• Cut out, or draw
pictures to show a particular event. Illustrate what you think the main idea
was.
• Make a cartoon strip
showing the sequence of events.
• Write and perform a
play based on the story.
• Retell the story in
your own words.
• Write a summary
report of the event
• Prepare a flow chart
to illustrate the sequence of events.
• Cut out, or draw
pictures to show a particular event. Illustrate what you think the main idea
was.
• Make a cartoon strip
showing the sequence of events.
• Write and perform a
play based on the story.
Retrieved from:
http://www.kurwongbss.qld.edu.au/thinking/Bloom/blooms.htm
Applying: Potential
Activities and Products
• Construct a model to
demonstrate how it works
• Make a diorama to
illustrate an event
• Make a scrapbook
about the areas of study.
• Make a papier-mache
map / clay model to include relevant information about an event.
• Take a collection of
photographs to demonstrate a particular point.
• Make up a puzzle or a
game about the topic.
• Write a textbook
about this topic for others.
• Dress a doll in
national costume.
• Make a clay model.
• Paint a mural using
the same materials.
• Design a marketing
strategy for your product using a known strategy as a model.
Analyzing: Potential
Activities and Products
• Design a
questionnaire to gather information.
• Write a commercial to
sell a new product
• Make a flow chart to
show the critical stages.
• Construct a graph to
illustrate selected information.
• Make a family tree
showing relationships.
• Devise a play about
the study area.
• Write a biography of
a person studied.
• Prepare a report
about the area of study.
• Conduct an
investigation to produce information to support a view.
• Review a work of art
in terms of form, color and texture.
Evaluating: Potential
Activities and Products
• Prepare a list of
criteria to judge…
• Conduct a debate
about an issue of special interest.
• Make a booklet about
five rules you see as important. Convince others.
• Form a panel to
discuss views.
• Write a letter to.
..advising on changes needed.
• Write a half-yearly
report.
• Prepare a case to
present your view about...
Creating: Potential
Activities and
Products
• Invent a machine to
do a specific task.
• Design a building to
house your study.
• Create a new product.
Give it a name and plan a marketing campaign.
• Write about your
feelings in relation to...
• Write a TV show play,
puppet show, role play, song or pantomime about..
• Design a record, book
or magazine cover for...
• Sell an idea
• Devise a way to...
• Make up a new
language and use it in an example.
Importance
of designing objectives:
1) Defines the direction of educational
development
2) Determines the number of levels for the
program
3) Informs students of the standards and
expectations of the course
4) Helps select content and desirable learning
experiences
5) Forms one of the major bases for evaluation
and provides the framework for clinical evaluation tool.
6) Serves as an implicit contract between
instructor and students, setting up a basis for accountability
7) Drives the curriculum planning
Objectives must
demonstrate progression
1.3
Objective-based
instruction & objective-based evaluation
1.4
Competency-based
instruction & Competency-based evaluation
Competency-based
education (CBE): history and overview
CBE is an institutional process
that moves education from focusing on what academics believe graduates need to
know (teacher-focused) to what students need to know and be able to do in varying
and complex situations (student and/or workplace focused).
CBE is focused on outcomes
(competencies) that are linked to workforce needs, as defined by employers and
the profession. CBE’s outcomes are increasingly complex in nature, rather than deriving
from the addition of multiple low-level objectives. CBE often necessitates more
complex assessment, involving portfolios, experiential learning assessment in
field experience, demonstration in varying contexts, role play, use of
standardized patients or clients, etc.
Large skill sets are broken down
into competencies, which may have sequential levels of mastery. Competencies
reinforce one another from basic to advanced as learning progresses; the impact
of increasing competencies is synergistic, and the whole is greater than the
sum of the parts.
Competencies within different
contexts may require different bundles of skills, knowledge and attitudes. The
challenge is to determine which competencies can be bundled together to provide
the optimal grouping for performing tasks. Another challenge is designing
learning experiences that support students as they practice using and applying
these competencies in different contexts. Continual refinement of defined
competencies is necessary so that enhanced performance in a variety of contexts
can be assessed. In essence, CBE is a process, not a product.
CBE is more than an effort to
describe or list educational and behavioral objectives. The early emphasis on
behavioral learning objectives was on reliable observation and judgment. To
this end, writers of behavioral objectives were encouraged to state outcomes in
operational terms, which can be observed using consistent observational
processes allowing for no interpretation (Bloom, 1971).
In an attempt to achieve this
reliability, a behavioral verb from a list of behavioral verbs (eg, state,
list, name, recognize, describe, calculate, describe, explain, synthesize, analyze) was required to
begin the objective. It is this narrowness that led to the criticism of these
approaches then and now; attainment of the multiple behavioral objectives did not
equal students’ workforce functionality.
The
advantages of competency based education are; “is
aimed at providing the learner with the knowledge, skills and attitudes”
(Applications of Competency based Educations: In the Context of Diversity and
Change) in a specific job or profession, students are required to have a
minimum level of competency in both knowledge and skills components. It
promotes ownership to the learner for their learning, utilizes a variety of
learning methods, and uses an “objective assessment and a performance
assessment”
(The
Benefits of Competency-Based Education for Adults). And
uses assessments and evaluations methods that are used in the workplace. An
example for the practical nursing program is skills testing on medication
administration. The student must perform safe medication administration using
the ten rights of medication administration to a simulated patient. The
Integrated Nursing Practice lab is set-up like a hospital, with a medication
cart with all supplies, medication administration record, and the patient has a
hospital identification band on. This form of education ensures the employer
and that the applicant is job ready with the minimum industry standards for the
specific job classification. Regulatory bodies have insurance that the
applicant has achieved the minimum required competencies. Competency based
education is usually not taught in one single module but is integrated
throughout several modules or the entire curriculum this enhances the learner’s
knowledge and or skills.
Disadvantages
of competency based education are that “the
learner often focuses on the assessment instead of completing assignments” (The
Benefits of Competency-Based Education for Adults). The reason for this action
by the student is that grades are based on assessments not activities or
assignments. Often Instructors focus on developing assessments.
Analysis
of text books: An example
Curriculum, syllabi and textbooks
are designed by the ………………………... The textbooks for classes I to V are part of a
series entitled Interactions in English (2003). The textbooks were developed by
the State Board of School Education. Presently, the state is in the process of
revising its text books ‘Tulip Series’ in the light of NCF-2005. These have
been developed by Academic Division of the Jammu & Kashmir State Board of
School Education.
Textbooks for classes I, III and IV
have already been developed under English Curriculum Renewal Project which was
launched with the active support and help of the British Council, New
Delhi.
In the textbooks, Teacher’s Notes
are given from class III onwards. Reading, Writing, Listening and Speaking
(RWLS) skills are integrated within the chapters. The textbook rarely uses the
regional language. There are references to Eid, Christmas, Mausi, Badi Bua,
Nullah, Gittas, Habba Kadal, some names of regional flora and fauna, etc., all of
which may contribute to a positive attitude towards multi-culturism and
multilingualism.
It was noticed that there are some
printing/proof reading errors in some of the books developed by the state.
Textbooks have given a list of
competencies which include the skills and sub-skills of listening, speaking, reading
and writing. Vocabulary development and the use of language functionally to
develop communicative skills are also listed among competencies to be developed
at each grade.
The books are age appropriate and
relevant to the local environment of students. Class III
textbook has 15 chapters, Class IV
and Class V textbooks have 18 chapters each.
The questions that follow the
lessons belong to both comprehension and inferential categories. Visual inputs
have been provided for some grammar items. A variety of exercises is used such
as fill in the blanks’, crosswords, rearranging of letters, and make sentences.
Interesting projects such as ‘cutting out pictures from old magazines’,
‘writing the names of animals’ are included. There is also focus on vocabulary
development and writing skills. The textbook also has provision for listening
and speaking exercises.
The books address both the teacher
and the student. The four skills are presented in an integrated manner. Links
with subjects like Science and Social science are provided through lessons
dealing with parts of the body, love for birds and animals and so on. Some
pages have been prepared by a few authors while many of the pages have been
taken from the NCERT textbooks.
Layout
and Design
The books developed in the state
are multi-coloured and attractively laid out. The size of the books is A4 and
the font size is 16. The paper quality, printing and binding of the books needs
some improvement. The illustrations are colourful, age appropriate and according
to the content. At many places the books are not in tune with the state
culture. English names and photographs of children from other countries have
been given which are not culturally suitable.
In Book I of Tulip series, many
pages have been taken from the NCERT’s Marigold series and re-produced (pages
36-69). It seems that the authors have developed only initial pages and for the
rest of the pages they have borrowed from other sources but have not acknowledged
the source.
The size of each book is 9” x 7”
and has a glossy colourful cover. The font size used is 16. There are plenty of
Illustrations depicting animals, birds, flowers, the world around the child and
people in attires which children recognize and identify with. Illustrations are
not all of the same quality and appear smudged in many places. There is scope
for improvement in illustrations, design, layout, printing, etc. in the textbooks
developed by the State.
Content
The textbooks integrate other
subject areas such as EVS, Math, Arts, etc. The books relate to the child’s
life and are helpful in developing communicative and literary skills. As compared
to classes I, II, III and V, the class IV textbook is very simple. The level of
class III book is higher than that of class IV. The format is also different
from the rest of the books; it starts in a novel way by providing lessons on
the environment. The book lacks ‘Teacher’s Notes’, has simple passages and
sentences and has only two short stories, though the learners are introduced
stories from class II. This book needs to be redesigned.
Meticulous care and precision is
discernible in the selection of lessons for these textbooks. Stories and poems
are selected from a wide spectrum cutting across geographical, cultural and
civilizational boundaries. This inclusive nature is the most commendable
feature of these textbooks. In most of the books different genres like poem,
story, play, autobiography etc. have been incorporated which cover wide range
of themes given in the syllabus. The contents of the textbook are age
appropriate and address both the learner and the teacher. Skills are taught in
an integrated manner and lessons include areas from EVS, Maths and Arts. It was
observed that the textbooks have some grammatical errors. The choice of
authentic published passages would have made the texts better tools for
teaching English.
There is no explicit effort at
gender sensitization or inculcating the concept of multiculturism in the
textbooks but the illustrations depict girls and women as functional members of
society. Names of characters express a multi-religious, multi-cultural thrust.
Multi-lingualism has not featured
in the textbooks and there are no references made to the differently abled.
Activities
There
are several sections in the textbooks which are designed to develop the
learners’ word power, vocabulary and the ability to speak and write well in
English. These sections are called- Let’s begin, let’s read, Words you may not
know, let’s understand, Using Words, Using language, let’s talk, let’s write,
Do it yourself, etc. along with others activities.
RECOMMENDATIONS
A)
For Administrators
• Policy planners need to re-think
about introduction of English as a medium of instruction from class I.
• Teachers need to be trained to
teach English as a language. Efforts need to be made to improve their content
knowledge and communication skills. In this context there is a great need for
devising course content at central/ regional level keeping in view teachers’
academic qualifications and professional training.
• Use of multi-media for training
of teachers is advised to avoid transmission loss and for making effective use
of limited number of resource persons. Teacher training programmes must include
courses to improve the speech and communicative skills of teachers.
• Recruitment rules for teachers in
various states need to be reviewed keeping in mind the role of primary teacher
in existing scenario where a teacher has to teach all the subjects to the
children coming from diverse backgrounds.
• Curriculum and text books in the
states need to be designed so as to bring them in sync with The National
Curriculum Framework , 2005.
• The syllabus for pre-service
training programmes at state level needs to be redesigned with reference to
NCF-2005 and NCF for Teacher Education.
• For pre-service Teacher
Education, networking between institutions like NCTE, NCERT, SCERTs, DIETs as
well as Regional Institutes of English is essential. NCTE and NCERT need to
collaborate to bring out materials on extended practice teaching which needs to
last for at least six months.
• The existing infrastructure of
DIETs and SCERTs should be improved to have staff specialised in the teaching
of English.
• A mechanism to constantly monitor
and evaluate the training programmes in terms of learning outcomes needs to be
developed.
• Defunct organizations like
Resource and Training Centres should be revived and made operational.
• Regional Institutes of English
(in Chandigarh and Bangalore) and English Language Teaching Institutes (ELTIs)
should also support training programmes of teachers both pre-service and
in-service at elementary level.
• State Institutes for Languages
should be set up to improve the teaching and learning of languages at various
levels including the elementary level.
• Short term training programmes,
bridge courses and content specific training modules need to be developed
specifically for primary teachers to teach English.
• A certification programme for
teaching English may be devised to help teachers refresh their skills of
teaching and for gaining proficiency in English.
B)
For Teacher Trainers
• The concept of language teaching
needs to be viewed as the teaching of skills and not just the drilling of
content in the teachers.
• The textbooks need to incorporate
activities and questions which give space, time and freedom for inculcating
creativity and imagination of the child.
• Emphasis should be more on the
listening and speaking skills while designing books.
• Efforts need to be made to
increase the proficiency level of teachers engaged in teaching English
particularly in reading, writing and speaking skills.
• All teachers teaching English
need to be trained in the use of phonetics as clarity and intelligibility are
the two major dimensions of proper pronunciation.
• Training programmes must have a
component of peer teaching and demo teaching along with in-depth, objective
analysis and realistic evaluation.
• Under CRCs/ BRCs, local teacher
development groups should be set up for teachers to exchange notes and resolve
any concerns and apprehensions regarding teaching of English.
C)
Teacher Training Materials
• Modules need to be prepared at
the SCERT/DIET level and at the level of other teacher training agencies,
keeping in view the needs of the teachers at the primary level. In all the
states modules were just an extension of textbooks. Modules need to move beyond
the textbooks for the basic concepts.
• Modules on capacity building to
facilitate the core understanding of the subject and improving proficiency
should also be prepared.
• Training modules should have a
variety of components which include role play, games, songs, poems, stories,
etc. as they are more conducive to learning.
• Training to use TLM grants
innovatively and indigenously should be encouraged.
• A package for ongoing process of self-learning
may be developed for teachers. Every training manual should contain the names
of useful websites of English teaching.
• NCERT’s Source Book on Learning
Assessment for classes I-V should be studied and made use of.
• Materials and textbooks need to
be age appropriate, relevant and interesting, keeping in view the level at
which it is being introduced.
• Demonstration lessons need to be
increased in Teacher Development Programmes. Observation of model classes by
experienced English teachers and those engaged in hands-on experience using
authentic teaching materials, is required.
D)
For teachers
• Teachers need to be active and
enthusiastic to keep the classrooms lively and full of interesting activities
to keep the children’s interest intact. They should motivate children to
participate in the classroom teaching and learning processes.
• An input rich environment for
children in class should be created to make English learning enjoyable. TLMs to
be prepared should be applicable to real teaching situations and not as
separate materials.
• Class libraries should be
developed to promote the habit of reading amongst children.
• Teachers need to develop their
own skills, knowledge and understanding for reading literary works. They need
to have a literature based approach to the teaching of English.
• The teachers need to read books
in English for professional development, they should enrol as members of
libraries, English groups or teaching associations.
• Teachers should make use of
warm-up activities in the beginning and re-capitulation of entire lesson at the
end.
• Teachers need to be more creative
in the use of textbooks, as textbooks cannot give everything. Lots of oral and
written practice needs to carried out using material beyond textbooks.
• To provide familiarity with new
words, careful planning is needed. Use of word cards, games like bingo and use
of big book, small book and shared reading should become more common. Use of
words given in charts/ sight words/ action words/ making sentences/finding
words that begin or end alike should be made in teaching. Choral reading and
silent reading need to be practiced in classes.
• Periods for direct instruction
and practice need to be provided in the class regularly. Starting with
scribbling, drawings, letter formation, from left to right direction, basic strokes,
understanding basic terminology (straight line, circle etc), recognizing
letters and sight words and control over fine muscles would improve
handwriting.
• Poetry needs to be taught for
appreciation, enjoyment and pleasure with proper feelings and recitation should
be done with proper rhythm, music and sound.
• Attempts should be made to
contextualise grammar.
• Homework should be used to
identify the learning deficiencies among the children and teachers should make
efforts to address these.
• Students need to be given
practice in asking a wide variety of questions (personal, comprehension,
grammar and general questions) as well as in answering them.
8.4 Looking Ahead
• There is a need for separate
English Teacher Training Centre with training staff, facilities and resources
to be set up in every state. In the states that have RIEs/ ELTAI’s, these need
to be equipped with sufficient resources. Thus linkages and networking with
DIETs/SCERT/ NCERT need to be established.
• Since the cascade model of
training exists in India, models of British Council working with SSA or
exchange programmes to English Language Institutes in English speaking
countries should be visualized. The central government/state governments can
play an important role in this venture.
• Since the study has shown that
better physical learning environment and educational facilities are important
factors in an effective teaching and learning process. Various audiovisual
materials, multi-media resources, computers and proper language labs can be
developed (like the Language Lab in Regional Institute of Education, Mysore).
• At the field level, a separate
room can be built/developed as language room in every school. Language learning
environment can be built by decorating the walls with words and quotes and
activities can be conducted around themes (like the Language Lab Room in
Yavatmal, Maharashtra).
• When teachers are textbook
centred, the books need to be prepared in an integrated manner like NCERT’s
Marigold series.
• TLMs prepared should be
applicable to real teaching situations and not as separate materials just to be
exhibited. Demonstration lessons need to be increased in Teacher Development
Programmes. Observation of model classes by experienced and knowledgeable
English teachers is required.
• As the study reveals, the student
teachers want practical courses in English pronunciation, developing speaking
and listening skills, variety of teaching methods, making use of songs and
games. It is important that the training is linked with everyday school
situation, so that the relevance is seen.
• The course content for English
teaching methods and text materials should be revised with focus on teaching
English communicative skills.
TRIPOLAR
RELATIONSHIP
A systematic approach for
developing an assessment plan necessitates that the plan is comprehensive.
Numerous educational experts identify objectives as the logical foundation of
the teaching-learning-assessment process. Objectives set the stage for effective
planning, teaching and assessment by specifying what a student should know at
the end of the instructional period. Identifying the objectives as the initial
step of planning guides the instructional and assessment processes for a course
and also provides the framework for developing measuring instruments that
provide valid and reliable information about student achievement. It is agreed
upon that objectives must be stated in general terms first and then the
specific objectives need to be identified so as to facilitate measurement of
student behavior at the end of the instruction. Thus objectives are seen to
guide the instructional destination of an educational experience for both the
teacher and the student while the outcomes define the objectives by specifying
the behavior marking student achievement.
Establishing objectives and
outcomes initially would help students to identify what is expected of them and
explicitly communicates your intent to them. Objectives usually emerge from the
real world (Mager, 1997). When students recognize that the instruction is
relevant and useful for their educational goals they are likely to assume
ownership of their own learning.
Clearly defined instructional
objectives thus:
·
Steer efficient course
planning
·
Guide the selection of
the teaching-learning activities
·
Direct the development
of measuring instruments
·
Empower students to
take charge of their own learning to meet your expectations
·
Increases validity of
the assessment process
Teacher-focused
objectives: Demonstrate to students how to
safely perform basic nursing procedures
Student-focused
objectives: The student will demonstrate safe
performance of basic nursing procedures
Methods
for writing objectives:
The methods for writing objectives
include general and specific formats.
The specific format identifies
behavior, learner, criterion, and condition as the components of highly precise
objectives. E.g.: Within 20 minutes in the laboratory (condition), the student (learner),
will obtain (behavior) an apical
pulse on a volunteer that is accurate to within three beats per minute (criterion).
Disadvantages;
1. There
is a degree of specificity inherent in these objectives that make them
unwieldy.
2. They
severely limit a teacher’s ability to modify the instructional approach.
3. Writing
of these objectives are too time-consuming as they focus on minute details.
Specific
objectives stated in general terms:
E.g.:
The student (learner) will demonstrate (behavior) safe performance of basic
nursing procedures (content)
General objectives:
· Is
a more logical approach than writing specific objectives
· It
identifies the expected learning but does not prescribe particular learning
conditions or assessment strategies
· The
format consists of a learner, a behavior, and the content
· It
is content free; the procedures are not identified, so you can develop a set of
outcomes that are applicable with various content units in a course
· This
approach makes the number of objectives manageable
· To
allow for flexibility in the instructional strategy, the general objective
should not include the teaching procedures for accomplishing the task
The
objective ‘obtaining an apical pulse’ in the specific objective stated above
restricts both the setting and the teaching procedure. It demands that the learning
takes place in a laboratory with a volunteer.
The
general format facilitates the acquisition of higher-order thinking skills and
leaves room for creativity in achieving and assessing the prescribed outcomes.
Learning
outcomes:
MODULE 3 COURSE OUTLINE
REFERENCES
http://www.ncert.nic.in/departments/nie/del/publication/pdf/english_primary_level.pdf
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(2005); National Council for Educational Research and Training, New Delhi.
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National Focus Group on Teaching of English; National Curriculum Framework
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3. NCERT, (2006) National
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9. Gardner and Lambert (1972)
Attitudes and Motivation in Second Language learning; Rowley; Newbury house.
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Administration, New Delhi.
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classes at the Elementary Level; National Council for Educational Research and
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National Council for Educational Research and Training, New Delhi.
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Achievement of class V Children, Mid Term Achievement Survey under SSA-2008;
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Roe (1990), An Introduction to Teaching the Language Arts ,Holt Rinehart and
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www.teachforindia.org
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Read more: Instructional Objectives
- Characteristics of a Well-Written Objective, Characteristics of a Useful
Objective, Kinds of Instructional Objectives - Learning, Cognitive, Student,
and Process - StateUniversity.com
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